When we talk about “building a fire”, we generally refer to an “open fire” – not a fire in a stove, fireplace, or oven. To put it more simply: a fire is “open” when it is not lit in a closed combustion chamber. A campfire is therefore an open fire.
However, fire pits, hobo stoves, barbecue grills and some types of cookers can also be considered “open”. You can quickly find yourself in a jungle of arbitrary rules and grey areas. That’s why this series of articles will focus exclusively on the classic campfire outside in the great outdoors.
Rules and regulations
At first glance, the answer is as simple as it is sobering: in Germany, open fire and open light (candles, torches, lanterns) are forbidden in forests and within 100 metres of the edge of the forest. Smoking is normally forbidden between 1 March to 30 October, and disposing of glowing cigarette stubs is, of course, also prohibited. There are also restrictions and prohibitions for meadows, fields, and shore areas.
But, as is always the case when it comes to rights, rules, and prohibitions in Germany, these are complicated and comprehensive – and the rules about fire are no exception. The German Federal Act for the Protection of Nature and the Federal Forest Act provide the regulatory framework, but many things are also regulated at a state level and can even be different from one township to the next. That means that the rules can be contradictory at different levels. According to outdoor and survival expert Kai “Sacki” Sackmann, the state-specific regulations apply in case of doubt. Sackmann’s very worthwhile article is one of the few detailed and clearly structured commentaries on the legalities of outdoor fires in Germany.
But why are things so complicated and heavily regulated in Germany? Well, there are a lot of people there (on average 225/km²) who share relatively few, generally small natural areas. The rules and regulations aren’t there to annoy outdoor enthusiasts; they are there to protect the remaining forests and natural habitats from fires and other damage.
The great majority of forests are freely accessible, but not in the least wild. They are usually properties used for forestry, belonging to cities, states, municipalities, or private individuals. Even permission from the property owner does not always mean that you are given carte blanche, because restrictions also apply to private properties – especially when they are near a forest. When in doubt, it’s better to just leave fire out of the picture…
Environmental aspects
Even though the millions of grill aficionados don’t like to hear it: every fire produces air pollution. Therefore, you should always ask yourself whether your grill or campfire is really appropriate – regardless of the legalities.
You should also consider residents or other outdoor lovers who might be bothered by your smoke. Maybe you can get them on board by inviting them to share some campfire twist bread.
Even when fire is permitted, it doesn’t mean you can just toss any flammable materials you want into the fire. Normally only dry, untreated wood or charcoal should be burnt. Wet material will result in excessive smoke development. Treated material (such as painted wood) is harmful to the environment and your health.
The legal situation in Switzerland and Austria
For Alpine Trekkers, the legal situation in the Alps is obviously also of interest. So what do Germany’s southern neighbours have to say on the topic of fire? The Swiss put a certain amount of trust in people’s common sense when it comes to nature, so they take a liberal stance on the issue:
“At the federal level, there is no law that would generally prohibit building a fire in the outdoors”, Rebekka Reichlin from the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment explained to the Swiss consumer magazine “Espresso”, which is published by the broadcaster Radio SRF 1.“There is no explicit prohibition of fire in the Swiss legislation regarding forests, hunting, or natural conservation. That means that, in principle, building a fire is permitted.”
That’s good news for fans of grilling and fires in Switzerland. However, this doesn’t mean that you can just light up anywhere you want; there are very definitely regional and temporary prohibitions. Most of these are due to the wildfire risk. According to research by the SRF, there are at least 500 official fire pits that often offer a luxurious infrastructure (including free firewood)!
The situation in Austria is similar to that in Germany. Here, too, it can generally be assumed that fire is prohibited in the forest. When in non-forest areas, it is a good idea to inquire with the responsible municipality to stay safe.
Preparation
The right place for a fire
Fortunately, there is more to life in the outdoors than just prohibitions. Outside of protected areas, you’re certainly free to ask the responsible forestry authority for permission. According to “Sacki” Sackmann, experienced bushcrafters have a success rate of about 50%.
Other than that, the question of where to find a suitable and “really, definitely permitted” spot for a fire almost answers itself: use designated grill areas and fire pits, which are usually marked in walking maps or with signs in the local area. You can also sometimes find a list of official fire pits on the website of the local tourism association. Google Maps will occasionally show these locations if you search for “fire pit”, “grill area” or similar.
“Out in the open” you should avoid building a fire within the forest itself. If it must be in the forest, choose the most open area available, such as a clearing.
Furthermore, you should not only be aware of the fire risk posed by smouldering coals and flying sparks, but also avoid leaving an unattractive hole in the ground vegetation. For this reason, you should use existing fire pits whenever possible. In general, sand, gravel, rock, and mineral surfaces are the best choices. It is also easiest to remove traces of the fire from these surfaces.
If no such surface is available, you should dig out the soil and carefully replace it before leaving the fire pit. A robust knife or a folding spade is ideal here. But be careful: on peat, moorlands, and marshlands, organic material can smoulder unnoticed underground long after the fire has been put out, which can cause fires!
It goes without saying that the fire should be built at an appropriate distance and downwind from any flammable objects such as a tent.
What else do I need to look out for in preparation?
Some outdoor enthusiasts build fires that are much too large. Not only do these burn more material than necessary; they are also harder to regulate. Especially when cooking, it doesn’t do any good if the fire heats a huge area but you can hardly touch the pots or pans.
When the right size has been determined, you should clear any leaves, moss or other organic materials within approximately a one-metre radius around the fire area. This also applies to any damp materials that could catch fire after the moisture has evaporated.
Before lighting the fire, you should also have plenty of tinder and firewood in various sizes close at hand for getting the fire started and for burning. Frantically gathering it up just before the fire goes out is counterproductive. We will cover tinder and kindling in a following article, which will discuss the right way to start a fire.
Fuel
As already mentioned, only dry wood and charcoal should be used for fuel. Straw and brushwood (thin, dry twigs) are suitable only for use as tinder because they burn so quickly, produce a great deal of smoke, and come with a high risk of flying sparks.
Burning green waste or garden waste is generally prohibited due to the poor flammability and, most importantly, due to the environmentally harmful smoke production. Its use can result in heavy fines.
Which wood for which fire?
What is the purpose of the fire? Should it burn hot and fast to boil a pot of soup or water for tea? Or should it last longer and burn evenly in order to grill or simmer something? Basic knowledge of the different types of wood and their characteristics is extremely helpful, even if you won’t always find the right wood in the outdoors.
The first principle is to use only deadwood rather than taking “limbs” from living trees. Deadwood that is still standing (or hanging) is ideal. Wood found lying on the ground can also be used, but this tends to smoulder rather than burn due to the moisture content. But when the fire is really burning, damp wood can be dried next to the fire to some extent and then added to the flames.
Living wood
Living wood is known as “green wood” in specialty terms. Because of its high resin content, it produces a great deal of smoke and sparks when burning. This is especially true of coniferous woods. They are relatively soft, burn easily, and produce a lot of heat, but they create much more smoke and sparks than they do embers. Pinecones can be used to help with this issue, as they smoulder brilliantly.
Wood from deciduous trees such as beech or oak is more difficult to light than coniferous wood, but it burns longer, produces longer-lasting embers, and creates less smoke and sparks.
What’s to do when there are no trees in the area? Then you can use material from bushes and shrubs or driftwood from beaches and riverbanks. However, the latter is very dry and burns accordingly hot and fast. In emergencies, grass, moss and reeds could also be used; they should ideally be tightly compacted before use. Other emergency solutions are peat and dried animal excrement.
Fire accelerators such as spirit alcohol or petrol are a bad – and sometimes deadly – idea! Aside from the fact that the fire could get out of control, there is also the risk of a flashback while pouring or spraying the accelerator – meaning that the flames suddenly leap out at you.
Wind, rain, snow: fire in difficult circumstances
In case of moisture or snow, you’ll need a fire bowl or other base (such as sand, gravel, rocks, damp greenwood) because the fire could otherwise sink down and extinguish itself in a puddle. If wood is used as a base, twigs and branches that are as similarly shaped as possible should be placed close next to each other like a barbecue rack.
If there is strong wind, the fire should be protected by a fallen log, a wall made of rocks, or other available materials. However, because fire needs oxygen, it should not be constricted by insufficient airflow. Instead of building a wall, you can also build the fire in a pit– we’ll cover more about that and different types of fire in the next article.
If it’s raining, the lower branches of coniferous trees are usually fairly well protected. If you remove the outer layers of spruce or pine branches with a knife, you’ll get firewood that is still relatively dry even in wet weather.
Last but not least: use caution with wet or icy rocks! They often have water in the pores and cracks that increases in volume as it turns to steam. This can create so much pressure that it causes the rock to explode, turning it into a dangerous projectile! This risk can be decreased by heating the rocks very slowly.
Lighting the fire and keeping it burning
We have already looked into the legal situation and prepared everything to the point that we have found a fireplace and the tinder is ready. Thin pieces of wood are at hand to get the fire started, as well as long-burning, thicker branches and pieces of wood. The fire will be built up bit by bit using different sizes of fuel. At first, only the smallest pieces of plant matter and wood burn. As the heat increases, larger and larger pieces can be added.
But first, a flame or ignition spark needs to make its way to the tinder so that it begins to glow hot and can spark the first flames. You can achieve this with many different methods and techniques. For the following selection, I’m drawing on some personal experience in addition to the online research, and I also read some literature on the subject– mostly the (generally highly recommendable) books Outdoor Praxis by Rainer Höh [translated: Outdoor Experience, available only in German] and the book Living Wild by Bear Grylls.
Making and stacking tinder
Pretty much everyone knows that you can’t build a fire by just setting a log on fire. You first need to ignite small pieces of fine, loose, dry material. This is called tinder, and it can be lit using only sparks. Many full-blooded bushcrafters carry some with them at all times.
As already mentioned in the previous article about fire, any dry, dead plant material can be used as tinder. Even certain fungi, such as the tinder fungus often found on old or ailing deciduous trees, can be used to ignite a fire. It was named after this special quality.
The resin from many types of trees (especially pine) and even old orange peels can also be used as natural tinder.
Birch bark is a particularly versatile and commonly available type of tinder. It can catch fire even in strong winds, without being dried. In fact, if it gets wet it can quickly be wiped dry and still lights easily. Whenever possible, only dead bark should be collected; in an emergency, you can also tear off small pieces of bark without damaging the tree. Other types of bark and wood can also be used – use a knife to shave off fine splinters and curly wood shavings that will ignite easily.
In addition to the natural materials, newspaper and shreds of paper are also suitable, as well as any other material that can be cut up or ground.
Tinder pyramid
There are many ways of getting tinder to burn. The traditional method is to pile it into a pyramid, which should be 10-20 cm high. If it’s too small, it will most likely go out again after igniting. If it is too big and too tightly compressed, the material won’t get enough oxygen to burn.
A few small twigs or bits of wood should then be stacked over the tinder pyramid in the shape of a tepee. It is important to leave a gap so that the flame or the sparks can still reach the tinder.
Lighting the fire – basic principles
No matter which method you use, one basic principle applies: if you are producing lots of smoke but hardly any flames, you need to increase the oxygen supply by blowing gently (or not so gently). As we all know, heat and fire move upwards, so the match/lighter should be held at the bottom of the tinder pile – not the top. Sparks should also be aimed towards the bottom of the pile. The same goes for blowing on the glowing tinder: blowing at the top of the tinder pile can cause the embers to go out.
You should always light the fire from the windward side. You can use your hand to protect the flame from the wind. An even better option is to have a second person as a helper. They can use their hands, their whole body, a jacket, or a tarpaulin to protect the fire from wind and moisture.
Lighting the fire with a lighter or match
A lighter is the simplest and easiest way to start a fire. The many other “non-technical” methods tend to fail at the most inopportune times, especially for beginners. And fire-novices are often surprised to find that the first few attempts take far longer than expected and require unbelievable amounts of tinder. But as the saying goes: practice makes perfect.
When it is wet or windy, it can be tricky enough even with matches or standard lighters. In these kinds of situations, stormproof lighters, stormproof matches, or strike anywhere matches can be helpful. Strike anywhere matches will light not only on the rough surface of the matchbox, but on many other surfaces as well. If there is a risk that the burning material could be blown away, and there is no way to block the wind, then you’ll have to do without the fire!
Matches – the old-school option
It’s not a bad idea to keep close watch over your stash of lighters and have a few emergency matches packed in a waterproof case. The advantage of matches over lighters is that you can position them more precisely and closer to the tinder pile without immediately burning your fingers. One of the disadvantages is that they are susceptible to moisture. But there’s an old boy scout trick to help with this: before your next trip, just dip the match heads in liquefied candle wax to waterproof them. You can easily scratch the wax off when you’re ready to use them.
The advantage of adjustable gas lighters or, even better, refillable stormproof lighters, is that you have a hand free while starting the fire. They also keep burning until the tinder ignites, instead of just until the match goes out or burns your fingers. Additionally, the flint in the lighter itself dries completely if the lighter falls into the water.
But if you really want to do things the stylishly stone-aged way, you’ll get rid of your lighter and matches and use the following techniques instead.
The alternatives
If you’re curious and eager to experiment, you’ll have fun with the following “trick” techniques – as long as it isn’t a survival situation where the fire absolutely needs to be lit…
Magnifying glass
This technique takes the least effort and gives the quickest results – at least, as long as the sun is burning down from a cloudless sky. Hold a magnifying glass or other glass lens (binoculars, the bottom of a bottle, etc.) over the tinder so that the sunlight is concentrated into the narrowest beam possible and aimed at the tinder. The heat is often sufficient to make the material smoulder after a short time. A few puffs of breath are usually needed to turn the smoke into a flame. Tip: the light will be even more concentrated if you wet the lens.
Striking a fire: lighting a fire with fire steel, flint, etc.
Fire steel usually refers to the rough, rounded sticks sold in outdoor shops. They typically have a plastic grip and are attached with a cord to a small metal plate. If you rub the metal plate over the stick, it produces a host of sparks that fly in whatever direction the stick is being held in. It’s a very reliable fire starter, but it can take quite a while for the sparks to get the tinder smouldering.
strong>Flint stands out because it is particularly hard and has a glass-like consistency. These properties means that it can send a shower of glowing steel sparks flying. The more carbon the steel contains, the better this works. As with the other techniques, you aim the shower of sparks towards the tinder until it begins to smoulder.
You’ll generally need to bring flint with you. The odds that you’ll just happen to find a suitable stone nearby are, in many areas, not much better than of finding a lighter just lying around. The website Flintsource.net offers a map with an overview of possible source locations in Europe. You can see that there are indeed many possible sources of flint, but none to be found far and wide in Germany and the alpine areas.
Alternatively, you can strike flint against other mineral rocks such as quartz. Striking a knife against a normal stone can also create a shower of sparks.
A charred piece of cotton material makes striking fire somewhat easier. The brilliant thing about this highly flammable material is that it “catches” small sparks and lets them smoulder. Learn more about this, and about other types of material to strike together, in this nicely illustrated Wikihow article.
Drilling for fire
The advantage of drilling for fire is that you don’t need to bring any special supplies with you. True, you need a knife, but you’ll have that on most trips anyway. Aside from that, you’ll just need a board made of the softest wood you can find, and a stick, which should be out of the hardest wood you can find. It needs to have a diameter of around one centimetre. You’ll use the knife to sharpen the stick and cut a notch in the wooden board to hold the stick. The stick is then rotated back and forth as quickly as possible while holding the sharp end in the notch.
This YouTube tutorial shows how the bow drill technique works without needing to bring along any special supplies (aside from the knife). For the bow drill technique, the wooden stick is wrapped in a bow string. By pulling the bow back and forth, the stick can be rotated much more rapidly and “hotter” than by spinning it back and forth in your hands.
The bow string can be made with a shoelace, which you use to hold a branch at tension. But not only is this procedure time-consuming, it’s also a lot of work.
If you’d like to learn more interesting and unusual methods, such as the battery / steel wool method, you’ll find them in the Wiki How article that was mentioned earlier.
Keeping the fire alive
After 5 to 10 minutes, once the tinder ignites the smaller twigs and you have a stable flame with sufficient heat, you can slowly add the thicker, more solid material to the fire. When you have enough heat and a blazing fire, even rough logs and thick branches can be added without a problem.
The tepee, which was described previously, is the traditional way to build a stable fire: build a “tent” over the pile of tinder using sticks that are no more than finger-width in diameter. The tepee needs to be stacked loosely enough to allow sufficient airflow. And don’t forget: you should lay as much fuel as possible next to the fire in advance and slowly add it to the fire.
For a long-lasting fire, thicker and thinner sticks/branches should be mixed together. Large branches that are too thick or placed too close to each other can restrict the airflow and strangle the fire. On the other hand, the fuel shouldn’t be piled too loosely; this would prevent it from developing enough heat.
Which fire for which purpose?
The many different “sub-species” of fire differ mostly in how much heat they produce, how long they burn, and in which direction the heat is given off. Aside from that, of course, there’s the ideal purpose of a campfire, for example as “mood lighting for just the right ambience or a cosy gathering place for conversations, singing, or even dancing“.
Cooking, heating, relaxing
The type of fire depends on its purpose.
Campfires can generally be divided into two categories, depending on the purpose of the fire: there are fires for cooking and fires for warmth. In either case, you shouldn’t just randomly pile on the wood; follow the instruction provided below to create the type of fire you need. If you just want to chill around the campfire, though, this isn’t absolutely necessary.
Cooking fires should generally be kept very small if you only want to cook with a single pot or pan. If you want to use more than one pot or pan, you can stretch the pile of fuel out to make a somewhat longer shape. Alternatively, you could light two or more small cooking fires.
There are many different means of hanging or placing pots/pans over the fire; your own creativity is the only limit. One option is to use rocks and (preferably wet) branches. You should also consider whether you’ll need some sort of a lever construction to control the distance to the flames, or if setting the pot directly in the embers and flames will do the trick.
Fires for warmth don’t need to be enormous, either. It’s better to use them effectively by moving in closer and creating reflective areas for the heat. A rock or steep bank directly behind your back is ideal.
Alternatively, you can create a reflective area with a tarpaulin or, better yet, with an aluminium blanket (emergency blanket). The reflector also offers good wind protection in many cases.
A well-built reflector fire can give off heat for such a long time that you can even catch a little shuteye without constantly needing to refuel the fire. However, if you’re in the forest or if there is a fire risk, the fire should either be extinguished overnight or monitored continuously.
Stars, crosses, pyramids: the most important types of fire
For the star campfire, branches are laid out in a star shape around the central fire and pushed into the flames as they burn. This type of fire concentrates the flames and heat in a small area, which has the advantage of using the fuel sparingly and efficiently. You can create an improvised cooktop by placing rocks between the branches. The relatively low heat is directed upwards in a star campfire.
To develop more heat on the sides, you would need to stack the fuel higher rather than spreading it out wide. This turns the star campfire into a pyramid fire, which is the classic all-purpose campfire. You just have to make sure that the pyramid has a stable base and doesn’t collapse. When adding more fuel to the fire, make sure that the wood doesn’t tilt outwards.
The star campfire also works if additional fuel is added in the shape of a cross, which is why this type of fire is sometimes called a cross fire.
Sometimes, though, a “cross fire” can also refer to a hunter fire. This burns slowly and with moderate heat. To create a hunter fire, you create two rails by laying two large logs or thick branches parallel to each other. It’s best if these are hardwood. Then pile sticks and branches across them.
A log cabin fire is built much like a hunter fire, but the hardwood sticks and branches are placed in multiple layers both perpendicular and parallel to the two logs, which should lay next to each other. It’s fine if the logs are green or damp, because this fire should create a long-lasting heat that radiates in all directions. The embers develop slowly, which makes the fire suitable for both heating and slow cooking.
The log cabin fire is particularly long-lasting when you build it up into the slightly more complex platform or upside-down fire.
Other forms
A reflector fire is for staying warm, and should direct the heat in one particular direction. For this fire, two solid wood stakes (as inflammable as possible) are placed in the ground at an angle. On these “rails,” logs and branches are layered as fuel, creating a slanted surface. The fire is lit on the side of the slant that faces upwards – to light it, lean tinder and small pieces of fuel against the surface. This causes most of the heat to be distributed upwards towards the side with the tinder and out to the sides. Fresh fuel is laid on top and burns when it reaches the bottom.
The pit fire is a good choice when it is windy or if you need to cook a meal for a very long time. Flying sparks can be contained quite impressively by a pit fire. For this type of fire, dry branches of various sizes are stacked along the round wall of the pit. Rocks are laid on the ground to improve airflow. The pit fire is relatively hard to light and heat is concentrated upwards. That isn’t very helpful as far as heating goes, but it does let you position reflective surfaces (which can also serve as additional wind shields) very close to the fire where they can do their job more effectively.
Safely extinguishing a campfire
Perhaps the most important rule of all is: don’t leave the campfire until the last spark is extinguished! Why? Because a single spark could be enough to start a forest or brush fire if the wind carries it to a flammable material somewhere nearby.
But if everything goes well, it’s actually quite a simple task. The fire goes out when no additional fuel is added. But with thick logs, that can take quite a while, which is why you might want to put them out with water, dirt, sand, or something similar. The fire won’t go out until it is completely out of “food” in the form of fuel. As long as even the smallest leftover bits remain, a tiny bit of oxygen can be enough to create a glowing ember or a spark.
The safe option
The safest bet is to have some kind of extinguisher, such as water, dirt, sand or a fire blanket, at arm’s reach of the fire from the very start. Alternatively, a well-filled bladder can also serve as an extinguisher – peeing on the fire is a favourite trick, at least for men. Whether or not that’s in good taste is something you’re welcome to discuss in the comments.
Once the fire is out, you can check for hidden embers by stirring the ashes with a stick. At this point, you should also check to see if there is any smoke rising.
Finally, you should do a heat test by holding your hand close to the fuel to check for residual heat. If necessary, mix water or an extinguishing material into the pile again, stir it around again with the stick and check once more. Don’t leave the fire pit until you are sure that you can’t see or feel anything. And, of course, you should also leave the area looking just as it did when you found it – or even a bit cleaner…
In any case, we hope that we’ve explained everything you need to know about building a fire in this three-part series. If you have any other “burning” questions, you’re welcome to ask them in the comments!
